11/20/15
Eleanor Babcock
Environmental Politics
A common theme behind climate change is the policies which are created and applied in order to mitigate and adapt to our changing climate. This week in class, we were visited by two guest professors, Jeff Anderson from Peace Studies and Matt Lindstrom from Political Science to brief us on different approaches to environmental policy and politics. Matt Lindstrom broke us into groups in class and gave us a commonly shared resource and asked us to create policy and set regulations on that resource.
This policy exercise is important because it aided us in understanding the breakdown and the complications behind regulating a shared resource. Garrett Hardin wrote an environmentally themes piece called "The Tragedy of the Commons". It discussed how we cannot solely have technological fixes to better our resource distribution, we need changes of our actions stemming from morals and values in order to share our resources. Professor Lindstrom defined the "commons" as resources with open access and no regulations or ownership. These commons are used in everyone's self-interest, driven by decisions to maximize ones own benefits.
The major problem with our world is that our population is growing exponentially. This means that our commons must be distributed equally and conservatively so we do not use or destruct our resources. Our freedom of the commons must be limited. There are three levels of policy which can be placed on the commons. These are:
1)Regulation
2)Privitization
3)Hybrid (cap and trade)
These levels gave us a way of looking at the resource Dr. Lindstrom gave us in class for our policy exercise. My groups was given the common resource of lakes. We determined that lakes should be regulated based on counties. This was because we looked at how population varies and some lakes are more central to populations of people than others. We also regulated the use of these lakes by populations by creating a permit policy for lake use. This permit policy also binded users to other regulations such as fishing limits, boat use and invasive species policies.
These methods of environmental policy are applicable to climate change because our climate is a commons. Our atmosphere is a shared resource which cannot be privatized. This means that meetings like the UNFCCC are essential for regulating emissions and use of the atmosphere.
Friday, November 20, 2015
Sunday, November 15, 2015
Eleanor Babcock
11/13/15
Geoengineering our Climate
This week we were visited again by Troy Knight a professor from the Environmental Studies department to discuss the topic of geoengineering our climate. In a broad sense geoengineering is the fighting of the symptoms versus seeking a cure. In terms of our climate, this means a technological fix to reduce excess carbon in our atmosphere. This has been discussed to be accomplished through solar radiation management or carbon dioxide removal.
Troy discussed with us how some of these scientific solutions could be accomplished. One way is through land sinks, so using our soils and plants to uptake and store this excess carbon . This could be done by planting more trees or small forests to intake and store carbon through the biological process of photosynthesis. Another land sink is biochar. Biochar is the addition of carbon into the soil. When coal is burned under low oxygen conditions, the carbon remains can be taken and spread over soils for plants to thrive off of. This stores the carbon in the soil and also provides nutrients for plants. Another scientific solution is through ocean sinks. This can be done through a biological pump, meaning we can take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in the oceans. Oceans have a circulation pattern where a percentage of nutrients and elements from the oceans surface leak into the lower layers of the ocean and are stored for a long time. If this is done with carbon we would not have to worry about excess carbon in the atmosphere. This ocean sink would mimic an old natural process.
These two scientific solutions are both reflective of natural biological processes and they both are ways of capturing and storing carbon among our plant. The other technological fix we have the potential to accomplish in terms of geoengineering the climate is through solar radiation management. Our planet, as explained by Troy, takes in solar energy but releases more radiation because of our planter greenhouse effect. Carbon and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere enhance the greenhouse effect giving out plant a net warming effect. Scientists have debated reducing the net solar radiation entering our planet through placing solar reflectors in space to minimize solar income. They have also debated increasing our surface albedo (reflectivity) so that less solar radiation is trapped in our atmosphere.
All of these technological solutions to reducing our anthropological impact on earths climate lead me to wonder why we have resorted to such extreme scientific measures to mitigate climate change. We have resorted to solving our problem by trying to lessen the effects of the symptoms of climate change instead of finding a cure to our problem.
I believe that this resort to technological solutions comes from the communication divide between politicians and scientists. Climate denial, lack of responsiveness and action, and policy implementation speed are all faults on the political spectrum. Making decisions and compromising on a national scale is difficult, but I believe that scientists, as they are first hand observing climate change through findings and data, are becoming anxious for the future of our planet. Their knowledge and understanding of the climate system is heightened because of their research and studies. This impatience has led scientists to take matters into their own hands and discuss these technological solutions to climate change. In essence, the lack of political action is forcing scientists to do what they do best and manifest solutions so our humans and our climate can remain in harmony.
11/13/15
Geoengineering our Climate
This week we were visited again by Troy Knight a professor from the Environmental Studies department to discuss the topic of geoengineering our climate. In a broad sense geoengineering is the fighting of the symptoms versus seeking a cure. In terms of our climate, this means a technological fix to reduce excess carbon in our atmosphere. This has been discussed to be accomplished through solar radiation management or carbon dioxide removal.
Troy discussed with us how some of these scientific solutions could be accomplished. One way is through land sinks, so using our soils and plants to uptake and store this excess carbon . This could be done by planting more trees or small forests to intake and store carbon through the biological process of photosynthesis. Another land sink is biochar. Biochar is the addition of carbon into the soil. When coal is burned under low oxygen conditions, the carbon remains can be taken and spread over soils for plants to thrive off of. This stores the carbon in the soil and also provides nutrients for plants. Another scientific solution is through ocean sinks. This can be done through a biological pump, meaning we can take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in the oceans. Oceans have a circulation pattern where a percentage of nutrients and elements from the oceans surface leak into the lower layers of the ocean and are stored for a long time. If this is done with carbon we would not have to worry about excess carbon in the atmosphere. This ocean sink would mimic an old natural process.
These two scientific solutions are both reflective of natural biological processes and they both are ways of capturing and storing carbon among our plant. The other technological fix we have the potential to accomplish in terms of geoengineering the climate is through solar radiation management. Our planet, as explained by Troy, takes in solar energy but releases more radiation because of our planter greenhouse effect. Carbon and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere enhance the greenhouse effect giving out plant a net warming effect. Scientists have debated reducing the net solar radiation entering our planet through placing solar reflectors in space to minimize solar income. They have also debated increasing our surface albedo (reflectivity) so that less solar radiation is trapped in our atmosphere.
All of these technological solutions to reducing our anthropological impact on earths climate lead me to wonder why we have resorted to such extreme scientific measures to mitigate climate change. We have resorted to solving our problem by trying to lessen the effects of the symptoms of climate change instead of finding a cure to our problem.
I believe that this resort to technological solutions comes from the communication divide between politicians and scientists. Climate denial, lack of responsiveness and action, and policy implementation speed are all faults on the political spectrum. Making decisions and compromising on a national scale is difficult, but I believe that scientists, as they are first hand observing climate change through findings and data, are becoming anxious for the future of our planet. Their knowledge and understanding of the climate system is heightened because of their research and studies. This impatience has led scientists to take matters into their own hands and discuss these technological solutions to climate change. In essence, the lack of political action is forcing scientists to do what they do best and manifest solutions so our humans and our climate can remain in harmony.
Friday, November 13, 2015
Eleanor Babcock
11/5/15
Sociopolitical Solutions
This week in class we focused on sociopolitical solutions for the policy bodies during the UNFCCC. The document we focused on was the Advanced Unedited Edition of the draft agreement and draft decision and how those decisions are made. In this blog post I will highlight some of the solutions the draft proposes then cover some of the challenges of making these decisions where policy makers may run into conflict.
The draft agreement lays out a purpose of the agreement by stating "parties [shall][agree to] to take urgent action and enhance [cooperation][support] so as to: hold the increase in the global average temperature [below 2 degrees celsius][below 1.5 degrees celsius][well below 2 degrees celsius][below 2 degrees celsius or 1.5 degrees celsius][below 1.5 degrees celsius or 2 degrees celsius][as far below 2 degrees celsius as possible] above pre-industrial levels by ensuring deep cuts in global greenhouse gas [net] emissions."
The purpose is important to note because it is the broad spectrum of the rest of the agreement. It lays out the importance of all the actions nations must take and what to strive for. Some of the solutions the draft agreement lays out after the purpose are:
-Collective long-term goals
-Reduction of deforestation through REDD+
-Sustainable development plans
-Taking into account gender inequalities and cultural differences
-Mobilizing domestic resources
These solutions are all important because they take into account all aspects of how climate change affects all parts of decision making. It takes into account finance, mitigation, cultures, adaptation ect.
As important as all the solutions are, there is much ambiguity as to how to effectively communicate these solutions. The draft contains many brackets which serve as placeholders for variations on expressing solutions communicatively. An example of this difference in opinion as to wording policy solutions can be seen in the quote I provided in the earlier part of this blog on the purpose of the agreement. There are eight different ways to advocate for a temperature limit on climate change. Policy bodies need to debate on how and where to set that global limit. This is a challenge to policy makers because there is a difference in opinion as to where to set the limit and how to communicate that limit.
These brackets and policy options are throughout the entire unedited draft and it is what the policy makers will use at the UNFCCC to make decisions. The fact that there are so many options for communicating solutions poses a challenge because each decision made at COP 21 must appease all nations and effectively mitigate climate change.
11/5/15
Sociopolitical Solutions
This week in class we focused on sociopolitical solutions for the policy bodies during the UNFCCC. The document we focused on was the Advanced Unedited Edition of the draft agreement and draft decision and how those decisions are made. In this blog post I will highlight some of the solutions the draft proposes then cover some of the challenges of making these decisions where policy makers may run into conflict.
The draft agreement lays out a purpose of the agreement by stating "parties [shall][agree to] to take urgent action and enhance [cooperation][support] so as to: hold the increase in the global average temperature [below 2 degrees celsius][below 1.5 degrees celsius][well below 2 degrees celsius][below 2 degrees celsius or 1.5 degrees celsius][below 1.5 degrees celsius or 2 degrees celsius][as far below 2 degrees celsius as possible] above pre-industrial levels by ensuring deep cuts in global greenhouse gas [net] emissions."
The purpose is important to note because it is the broad spectrum of the rest of the agreement. It lays out the importance of all the actions nations must take and what to strive for. Some of the solutions the draft agreement lays out after the purpose are:
-Collective long-term goals
-Reduction of deforestation through REDD+
-Sustainable development plans
-Taking into account gender inequalities and cultural differences
-Mobilizing domestic resources
These solutions are all important because they take into account all aspects of how climate change affects all parts of decision making. It takes into account finance, mitigation, cultures, adaptation ect.
As important as all the solutions are, there is much ambiguity as to how to effectively communicate these solutions. The draft contains many brackets which serve as placeholders for variations on expressing solutions communicatively. An example of this difference in opinion as to wording policy solutions can be seen in the quote I provided in the earlier part of this blog on the purpose of the agreement. There are eight different ways to advocate for a temperature limit on climate change. Policy bodies need to debate on how and where to set that global limit. This is a challenge to policy makers because there is a difference in opinion as to where to set the limit and how to communicate that limit.
These brackets and policy options are throughout the entire unedited draft and it is what the policy makers will use at the UNFCCC to make decisions. The fact that there are so many options for communicating solutions poses a challenge because each decision made at COP 21 must appease all nations and effectively mitigate climate change.
Thursday, November 12, 2015
Eleanor Babcock
11/11/15
Resource Guide
Alaska Airlines Inks Agreement to Purchase Gevo's Alcohol-to-jet Fuel as Certification Edges Closer
This online article provided by GreenAir online discusses the partnership between Alaska Airlines and Gevo, a company which researches and produces sustainable biofuels. This partnership and launch of biofuels in the airlines is an excellent example of what all airlines should be doing. Use of sustainable fuels is a way to combat climate change without disturbing economic growth of the aviation industry. Alaska Airlines is the first airline to create a target to commercially fly planes using biofuels. Their target is for the year of 2020. This article is useful in that it provides an example of sustainable aviation in progress.
"Alaska Airlines Inks Agreement to Purchase Gevo's Alcohol-to-jet Fuel as Certification Edges Closer." Green Air. IATA, 13 May 2015. Web. 11 Nov. 2015. <http://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=2083>.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Summary for Policy Makers on Aviation
The Rough Guide to Climate Change
International Civil Aviation Organization Official Website
11/11/15
Resource Guide
Alaska Airlines Inks Agreement to Purchase Gevo's Alcohol-to-jet Fuel as Certification Edges Closer
This online article provided by GreenAir online discusses the partnership between Alaska Airlines and Gevo, a company which researches and produces sustainable biofuels. This partnership and launch of biofuels in the airlines is an excellent example of what all airlines should be doing. Use of sustainable fuels is a way to combat climate change without disturbing economic growth of the aviation industry. Alaska Airlines is the first airline to create a target to commercially fly planes using biofuels. Their target is for the year of 2020. This article is useful in that it provides an example of sustainable aviation in progress.
"Alaska Airlines Inks Agreement to Purchase Gevo's Alcohol-to-jet Fuel as Certification Edges Closer." Green Air. IATA, 13 May 2015. Web. 11 Nov. 2015. <http://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=2083>.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Summary for Policy Makers on Aviation
The
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) wrote a publication report
with a summary for policy makers on aviation and the global atmosphere and
proposed alternative options for aircraft efficiency and sustainability.
Information on effects of aviation in terms of carbon, methane, and ozone
emissions are all provided. Solutions
for creating a more sustainable aviation department include airframe design,
alternative fuels, and air traffic guidance are also discussed.
"Aviation and the
Global Atmosphere." Grid Arendal. Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change, n.d. Web. 11
Nov. 2015. <http://www.grida.no/publications/other/ipcc_sr/?src=/climate/ipcc/aviation/index.htm>.
Making an Impact: The influence of Policies to Reduce Emissions from Aviation on the Business Travel Patterns of Individual Corporations
This article, provided by Science Direct, is a scholar peer reviewed source. It includes valuable information regarding how personal and global businesses are striving to reduce their carbon footprint in terms of air travel. Some of these measures include: increasing air ticket prices and reducing the amount of people on international business trips. This article is valuable because it gives a perspective on what small businesses in the the UK are doing to lessen their air travel carbon footprint. It gives us a close up look at how business can strive to be more sustainable by giving examples of how these particular businesses are already doing that.
Davies, Zoe G., and Paul R. Armsworth. "Making An Impact: The Influence
Of Policies To Reduce Emissions From Aviation On The Business Travel
Patterns Of Individual Corporations." Energy Policy 38.12 (2010): 7634-7638. Environment Index. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.
Fighting Climate Change In The Air: Lessons From
The EU Directive On Global
Aviation
This
source is a peer reviewed article sourced from a database. It discusses the
importance of the European Union’s (EU) decision to include aviation carbon
emissions in their carbon calculations. There have been extreme noticeable
increases in carbon emissions from aviation sectors. The EU requires that all aviation sectors
account or all their carbon emissions. This is problematic because on an
international scale it is difficult to gauge whose emissions are whose. This
article focuses on the importance of securing a system to avoid carbon leakage.
Inclusion of all airlines is the best way to avoid carbon leakage. The EU has
been working to avoid problems from past aviation and climate change efforts.
The EU has decided to reduce emissions from aviation 30% by 2020 by improving
energy efficiency, increasing shares of renewable energy, and developing an
environmentally friendly way to store carbon. These solutions are politically
minded rather than technological.
De Paula Domingos,
Nicole. "Fighting Climate Change In The Air: Lessons From The EU Directive On Global Aviation." Revista
Brasileira De PolÃtica Internacional 55. (2012): 70-87. Academic Search Premier. Web. 3
Nov. 2015.
The Rough Guide to Climate Change
Described in this rough
guide about climate change, air travel has to potential to counteract all
progress in the reduction of greenhouse gases as it becomes cheaper and more
popular. It is reported that the aviation sector emits up to 1 billion tons of carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere each year. Air travel emissions are not accounted
for by the Kyoto protocols. This is problematic because it causes separate
aviation organizations to be accountable for their own emissions.
This rough guide also explains the science behind
contrails from air planes and their warming effect on the atmosphere. In a
study conducted by David Travis directly after the terrorist attacks on
September 11th, found that because air travel was shut down for the
few days preceding the attacks the average air temperature was one degree
higher during the day and lower at nights. He concluded that the lack of
contrails in the atmosphere resulted in more solar radiation reaching the earth
during the day and more escaping at night. Contrails have a net warming effect
because they trap heat radiated back from the earth. The IPCC reported that
contrails add up to 60% of warming from aviation.
Henson, Robert, and
Duncan Clark. The Rough Guide to Climate Change. 3rd ed. Vol. 1. London: Rough Guides, 2011. Print.
Exploring People's Viewpoints On Air Travel And
Climate Change: Understanding Inconsistencies
This article is a scholarly peer reviewed
article. Projected growth of aviation is expected to surpass fuel and
technology advancements and this article focuses on how to approach consumers,
those associated with air travel, to advance technology in favor of the general
public. The theory on air travel behavior is important because those who use
air travel are the ones most directly affected by changes, whether that be
scientific or economic. Travelers are generally unaware that their daily
routines affect the climate. Even with awareness, it does not impact people’s
decision to fly.
Kroesen, Maarten.
"Exploring People's Viewpoints On Air Travel And Climate Change: Understanding Inconsistencies." Journal
Of Sustainable Tourism 21.2 (2013): 271-290. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
Climatologist Develops Contrail Avoidance Model
This university article describes the work that David Travis, a climatologist from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater did after September 11th when all flights were grounded. It describes his findings from his study. Some of these findings were that the earth was warmer during the day and cooler during the night.
Kuhl, Sarah. "Climatologist Develops Contrail Avoidance Model." University News [Whitewater] 1 May 2008: n. pag. Print.
Climatologist Develops Contrail Avoidance Model
This university article describes the work that David Travis, a climatologist from the University of Wisconsin-Whitewater did after September 11th when all flights were grounded. It describes his findings from his study. Some of these findings were that the earth was warmer during the day and cooler during the night.
Kuhl, Sarah. "Climatologist Develops Contrail Avoidance Model." University News [Whitewater] 1 May 2008: n. pag. Print.
Want To Reduce Your Carbon Footprint? Here’s
Which Airlines To Fly
An
article published on Thinkprogress discussing the difference between which airlines are the most
reliable in terms of reducing carbon footprint. A study released by the
International Council on Clean Transport concluded that Alaska Airlines was the
most efficient way to fly. Frontier and Southwest Airlines were also some of
the top more efficient airlines. Fuel efficiency s directly tied to costs for
flying with a particular airline. Consumers generally look for the most cost
efficient flight, but green flights are becoming more of an outlook for
frequent flyers. Suggestions are that the only way to effectively reduce
emissions from aircrafts would be to increase flight ticket prices.
Page, Samantha.
"Want To Reduce Your Carbon Footprint? Here’s Which Airlines To Fly." Climate Progress. N.p., 31
Oct. 2015. Web. 4 Nov. 2015. <http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2015/10/31/3717776/best-worst-emitting-airlines/>.
Evaluation of Multifunctional Fuel Cell Systems in Aviation Using a Multistep Process Analysis Methodology
This paper is from a peer reviewed credible database. It discusses options for advancement of fuel cells in aviation technology. Fuel conversion is one advancement which could be very beneficial for reducing emissions in the aviation sector. This paper researches the introduction of fuel cells. Fuel cells are important advancements in technology because they save energy and consider more efficient types of power management. Hydrogen power as a fuel is highly efficient and does not emit any carbon when burned, however, there is no infrastructure for carrying hydrogen on board aircraft. This paper concluded that the more efficient, less water producing fuel cell was that which carried kerosene. This paper also concluded that switching to biofuels is the best decision for aviation sectors, however, the infrastructure to store and burn these types of fuels are not advanced enough.A solution derived from this paper is that, we have the material and resources to use biofuels, we just need the infrastructure.
Peters, R., and R.C. Samsun. "Evaluation of Multifunctional Fuel Cell Systems in Aviation Using a Multistep Process Analysis Methodology." Environment Index. N.p., Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
Aviation Industry Proposing Solutions to Solving Their Global Warming Pollution?
This article provided by an environmentally minded news source discusses the lack of action taken by aviation industries to mitigate their emissions. Many industries have stated that they "are going" to fix the problem or "are working" on solutions, but action is slow to be taken. The author of this article also participated in the climate change negoations in Germany where a cap on emissions from the aviation sector was proposed. A lever in the aviation section was also proposed to aid those in countries suffering from climate change from funding from air travel industries.
Schmit, Jake. "Aviation Industry Proposing Solutions to Solving Their Global Warming Pollution?" Grist, 8 Apr. 2009. Web. 11 Nov. 2015. <http://grist.org/article/aviation-industry-proposing-solutions-to-solving-their-global-warming-pollu/>.
Evaluation of Multifunctional Fuel Cell Systems in Aviation Using a Multistep Process Analysis Methodology
This paper is from a peer reviewed credible database. It discusses options for advancement of fuel cells in aviation technology. Fuel conversion is one advancement which could be very beneficial for reducing emissions in the aviation sector. This paper researches the introduction of fuel cells. Fuel cells are important advancements in technology because they save energy and consider more efficient types of power management. Hydrogen power as a fuel is highly efficient and does not emit any carbon when burned, however, there is no infrastructure for carrying hydrogen on board aircraft. This paper concluded that the more efficient, less water producing fuel cell was that which carried kerosene. This paper also concluded that switching to biofuels is the best decision for aviation sectors, however, the infrastructure to store and burn these types of fuels are not advanced enough.A solution derived from this paper is that, we have the material and resources to use biofuels, we just need the infrastructure.
Peters, R., and R.C. Samsun. "Evaluation of Multifunctional Fuel Cell Systems in Aviation Using a Multistep Process Analysis Methodology." Environment Index. N.p., Nov. 2013. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
Aviation Industry Proposing Solutions to Solving Their Global Warming Pollution?
This article provided by an environmentally minded news source discusses the lack of action taken by aviation industries to mitigate their emissions. Many industries have stated that they "are going" to fix the problem or "are working" on solutions, but action is slow to be taken. The author of this article also participated in the climate change negoations in Germany where a cap on emissions from the aviation sector was proposed. A lever in the aviation section was also proposed to aid those in countries suffering from climate change from funding from air travel industries.
Schmit, Jake. "Aviation Industry Proposing Solutions to Solving Their Global Warming Pollution?" Grist, 8 Apr. 2009. Web. 11 Nov. 2015. <http://grist.org/article/aviation-industry-proposing-solutions-to-solving-their-global-warming-pollu/>.
The
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is a specialized United
Nations (UN) organization focused on governance in the aviation regime. Works
with member states to create standard policies which all aviation forces should
abide by. The ICAO works with the UN to meet their sustainable development
goals. These goals include creating action plans for member states, developing
sustainable fuel options, such as drop-in fuels, and implementing policies on
aviation standards regarding the environment.
According
to the ICAO Emissions from airplanes are unique in that they emit large
quantities of greenhouse gases at altitude causing a major global impact.
Aircrafts contribute to 3.5%-4% of the world’s emissions through all human
activities. CO2 emissions from aviation are expected to grow 3-4% each year. The
ICAO will continue to expand outlook on sustainable air travel from solely
ground work to in air engine emissions. Under the Kyoto protocol aviation
emissions are excluded from the CO2 account because it is under a global scale
rather than a national scale.
United Nations.
"Environmental Protection." International Civil Aviation Organization.
United Nations, n.d. Web. 4 Nov. 2015.
<http://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/AltFuel-Q2-1.aspx>.
The Engineering Options For Mitigating The Climate Impacts Of Aviation
The Engineering Options For Mitigating The Climate Impacts Of Aviation
This
source is a peer reviewed scholarly source. This source takes into
consideration the impacts aviation has on climate change, but has a focus on
the engineering options for aviation improvements. Building new infrastructure
is one way to decrease carbon emissions into the atmosphere. One of the major
driving forces behind infrastructure developments has always been the cost of
fuel, not carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Improving the overall
efficiency of the engine will in turn reduce carbon and nitrous oxides released
into the atmosphere. Alternative fuel options are also offered in this article.
Synthetic kerosene blended with other fuels is one alternative option which
does not require many changes to pre-existing aircraft infrastructure. Hydrogen
fuels are being considered for the long term, however, they require significant
infrastructure changes to aircraft to adapt to. Hydrogen fuels do not emit any
carbon, but they do have the potential to increase water vapor in the
atmosphere which also has a warming effect.
Victoria, Williams. "The Engineering Options For Mitigating The Climate Impacts Of
Aviation." Philosophical
Transactions Of The Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical & Engineering Sciences 365.1861 (2007):
3047-3059. Academic Search Premier. Web. 11 Nov. 2015.
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